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Chapter 1 – The Eight Parts of Speech
Introduction
I. The term "Eight Parts of Speech" refers to the most basic concepts in English grammar. These include:
A. Noun
A word used to name a person, place, or anything else (whether concrete or abstract) is called a noun.
→ Nouns are naming words, e.g. "dog", "city", "happiness".
B. Pronoun
A word used to replace a noun is called a pronoun.
→ Pronouns help avoid repetition, e.g. "he", "she", "they".
C. Verb
A word used to describe an action or state related to the subject of a sentence is called a verb.
(Verbs usually show actions, but sometimes show a state of being.)
→ Verbs are action or state words, e.g. "run", "think", "is".
D. Adjective
A word used to describe (limit or define) a noun or pronoun is called an adjective.
→ Adjectives add detail, e.g. "tall", "angry", "blue".
E. Adverb
A word used to describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb is called an adverb.
→ Adverbs tell us how, when, or where, e.g. "quickly", "very", "here".
F. Preposition
A word used to connect a noun or pronoun to another word, and show the relationship between them, is called a preposition.
→ Prepositions show relationships, e.g. "on", "under", "between".
G. Conjunction
A word used to join words, phrases, or clauses together is called a conjunction.
→ Conjunctions link ideas, e.g. "and", "but", "because".
H. Interjection
A word used to express surprise, joy, sadness, anger, or other strong emotions is called an interjection.
→ Interjections are emotion words, e.g. "Wow!", "Oh no!", "Yay!".
II. Every English word, depending on its meaning and role, belongs to one of the above eight parts of speech.
→ Words are grouped by how they function in sentences.
Page 1
Examples of the Eight Parts of Speech
a. I am a student.
→ "student" is a noun because it names a person.
Example: "Lucy is a student at the local college."
Explanation: A noun is a naming word – it tells us who or what we're talking about.
b. He is ill today.
→ "He" is a pronoun because it replaces a noun like "John".
Example: "He enjoys football." (Instead of repeating "John", we use "he".)
Explanation: Pronouns avoid repetition and stand in for nouns.
c. The boy cried to him.
→ "cried" is a verb because it shows an action done by the subject.
Example: "She cried when she saw the movie."
Explanation: Verbs are doing words that describe actions or states.
d. John is a brave boy.
→ "brave" is an adjective because it describes the noun "boy".
Example: "The brave firefighter entered the burning house."
Explanation: Adjectives describe nouns and give more detail.
e. The flower is very beautiful.
→ "very" is an adverb because it modifies the adjective "beautiful".
Example: "She is very tired after the trip."
Explanation: Adverbs describe how something is done or the degree of a quality.
f. The boy stands on the desk.
→ "on" is a preposition because it links the noun "desk" to "stands".
Example: "The cat is under the table."
Explanation: Prepositions show the relationship between two things, often in time, place, or direction.
g. He is rich, but he is not happy.
→ "but" is a conjunction because it joins two sentences.
Example: "She studied hard, but she failed the test."
Explanation: Conjunctions link clauses, words, or phrases to form complex ideas.
h. Ah! Have they gone?
→ "Ah!" is an interjection because it expresses surprise.
Example: "Oh! I forgot my homework!"
Explanation: Interjections are sudden expressions of emotion, not part of the grammar of the sentence.
III. A single word can belong to different parts of speech depending on its meaning and use. For example:
a. He has a wonderful reach of imagination.
→ "reach" is a noun here, meaning a range or extent.
Example: "The mountain is beyond the reach of most climbers."
Explanation: In this sentence, "reach" names a concept – it's a thing, so it's a noun.
b. Your letter reached me yesterday.
→ "reached" is a verb here, showing an action.
Example: "The ball reached the goal just in time."
Explanation: Here, "reached" shows what the subject (the letter) did, so it's a verb.
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More Examples of Word Classes Changing by Usage
I. The word "any" can function as different parts of speech depending on the sentence:
a. Do any of you know anything about it?
→ "any" is a pronoun because it stands for an unspecified person or people in "you".
Example: "Did any of them call you?"
Explanation: Here, "any" replaces a noun – it's used like "anyone".
b. Are there any witnesses present?
→ "any" is an adjective because it modifies the noun "witnesses".
Example: "Do you have any questions?"
Explanation: It describes the noun and tells us something about quantity.
c. Is that any better?
→ "any" is an adverb because it modifies the adjective "better".
Example: "Is this any easier to understand?"
Explanation: Used to emphasise degree or comparison.
II. The word "after" can also act as different parts of speech:
a. They arrived soon after.
→ "after" is an adverb because it modifies the verb "arrived".
Example: "The train left soon after."
Explanation: It tells us when something happened.
b. They arrived after us.
→ "after" is a preposition because it links the noun "us" to the verb "arrived".
Example: "He left after lunch."
Explanation: Shows the relationship between two things in time.
c. They arrived after we had left.
→ "after" is a conjunction because it connects two full clauses.
Example: "We came after they had gone."
Explanation: Joins two actions to form a complex sentence.
III. The word "what" can also change class depending on use:
a. What does he want?
→ "What" is a pronoun because it stands for an unknown thing.
Example: "What is that?"
Explanation: Used to ask about an unspecified object or idea.
b. What evidence have you?
→ "What" is an adjective because it modifies the noun "evidence".
Example: "What time is it?"
Explanation: Describes which kind or type of something.
c. What! You don’t mean to say so?
→ "What!" is an interjection expressing surprise.
Example: "What! You got an A?"
Explanation: Used to show strong emotion, not part of the sentence structure.
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IV. Sentence
A sentence is made up of different parts of speech, combined to express a complete idea.
For example:
a. He has a good memory.
→ This sentence means: He has good recall or remembering ability.
b. The girl is very beautiful, and she is fond of music.
→ This sentence means: The girl looks very pretty, and she likes music.
Sentences are divided into two main parts:
a. Subject
The part of the sentence that tells who or what the sentence is about.
Usually a noun or pronoun.
→ Example: “The dog” in “The dog barks.”
b. Predicate
The part of the sentence that tells what the subject is doing or what is being said about the subject.
The most important word in the predicate is usually the verb.
→ Example: “barks loudly” in “The dog barks loudly.”
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Examples of Subjects and Predicates
John threw a stone.
(Subject) (Predicate)
→ John is the person doing the action. "threw a stone" tells us what he did.
Explanation:
  • John = Subject (the person the sentence is about)
  • threw a stone = Predicate (what John did)
The baby sleeps well.
(Subject) (Predicate)
→ "The baby" is who the sentence is about. "sleeps well" describes the baby's action.
Explanation:
  • The baby = Subject
  • sleeps well = Predicate (the action and how it is done)
It is raining.
(Subject) (Predicate)
→ "It" is the subject (used for weather). "is raining" tells us what's happening.
Explanation:
  • It = Subject (impersonal pronoun used for weather)
  • is raining = Predicate (what the weather is doing)
V. Grammar Summary
English grammar is the study of:
  • The correct use of the eight parts of speech
  • The proper structure of sentences
This chapter gives a brief summary of:
  • What each part of speech means
  • How each is used in real sentences
  • Page 5
Section 1 – Nouns
I. Definition of a Noun
A noun is a word used to name a person, place, or anything else — whether abstract or physical.
Examples:
  • man (person)
  • city (place)
  • timber (material)
  • John (a person’s name)
  • crew (a group of people)
  • people (plural for person)
  • speech (an abstract concept)
  • spirit (an idea, feeling, or force)
Explanation:
Nouns are naming words. They can name physical things like “timber” or abstract ideas like “spirit”.
II. Kinds of Nouns
A. Common Noun
A common noun names any one item of a general group — such as a type of person, place, or thing.
Examples:
  • girl
  • country
  • town
  • month
  • table
  • newspaper
Explanation:
Common nouns are not specific. For example, “girl” could refer to any girl, not a particular one.
B. Proper Noun
A proper noun is used to name a specific person, place, or thing.
Examples:
  • Lawrence
  • Alice
  • Hong Kong
  • China
  • South China Morning Post
  • January
Important Rule: A proper noun always begins with a capital letter.
Explanation:
Proper nouns name individual people or places, like “Lawrence” instead of “man” or “Hong Kong” instead of “city”.
C. Collective Noun
A collective noun refers to a group of people or things seen as one unit.
Examples (see next page)
Explanation:
Collective nouns describe a collection — for example, “team” means a group of players, but is used as a single noun.
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Section 1 – Nouns (continued)
C. Collective Noun (continued)
A collective noun refers to a group of people or things treated as one unit.
Examples:
  • crowd (a group of people)
  • army (a group of soldiers)
  • fleet (a group of ships)
  • family (a household group)
  • nation (a group of people forming a country)
  • committee (a decision-making group)
Explanation:
Even though these nouns refer to many individuals, they are treated as singular units.
D. Abstract Noun
An abstract noun is a noun that names a quality, action, or state that cannot be seen or touched — only felt or imagined.
Examples:
  • kindness
  • judgment
  • childhood
  • darkness
  • hatred
  • poverty
Also includes names of fields like art and science:
  • music
  • chemistry
Explanation:
Abstract nouns describe things we can't see or touch, like “hope” or “anger”. We know they exist because we feel or think them.
E. Material Noun
A material noun names a substance or material from which things are made.
Examples:
  • timber
  • gold
  • rice
  • water
  • glass
  • iron
  • tea
  • air
Explanation:
These nouns refer to raw substances or materials, like “iron” or “water”.
III. Declension of Nouns
A. Number of Nouns
Nouns can change their form to show number, gender, or case. These changes are called declensions.
1. Kinds of Number
a. Singular Number
A noun is singular when it refers to one person or one thing.
Examples:
  • boy
  • girl
  • bird
  • book
Explanation:
These are all single items. Later we'll learn how to form plurals.
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III. Declension of Nouns (continued)
b. Plural Number
A plural noun refers to more than one person or thing.
Examples:
  • boys (more than one boy)
  • girls (more than one girl)
  • birds (more than one bird)
  • books (more than one book)
Explanation:
When we talk about more than one thing, we change the noun into its plural form.
2. Formation of Plurals
There are two main types of plural formation:
(1) Changing the form but keeping the meaning
a. Add -s to the end of most words
Examples:
Explanation:
These are regular plurals — we simply add -s to make them plural.
b. If the word ends in -s, -x, -z, -sh, or -ch, add -es
Examples:
Note:
If the -ch ending sounds like /k/ (as in “stomach”), we only add -s, not -es.
Example:
  • stomach → stomachs
c. If the word ends in -o, add -es
(More examples will continue on next page…)
Teaching Note:
Use these rules when writing stories or descriptions. Knowing how to form plurals correctly helps your writing become clearer and more accurate.
Page 8III. Declension of Nouns (continued)
2. Formation of Plurals (continued)
c. Words ending in -o: Add -es
Examples:
Note:
Some nouns ending in -o are exceptions — they just take -s.
d. Words ending in -y
  • If there is a vowel before -y, just add -s.
  • If there is a consonant before -y, change -y to -i, then add -es.
Examples:
Explanation:
The rule depends on the letter before the “-y”.
e. Words ending in -f or -fe
Change -f or -fe to -v, then add -es.
Examples:
Exceptions:
Some -f or -fe words simply add -s.
f. Irregular plurals – vowel change only
Some words change their internal vowel to form the plural.
Example:
Explanation:
These are irregular forms and must be memorised.
Page 9
III. Declension of Nouns (continued)
2. Formation of Plurals (continued)
g. Some irregular nouns add -en to form the plural.
Explanation:
These are old English forms and must be memorised.
h. Compound Nouns
For some compound nouns, the main word takes the plural form.
Explanation:
Don’t just add “s” to the end — change the main noun in the compound.
i. Foreign-Origin Nouns
Some English words keep their original Latin, Greek, or other foreign plural forms. Others have accepted English-style plurals.
Explanation:
Some words now accept two correct forms. Others only use the original foreign plural.
j. Letters, numbers, and symbols
To make letters, numbers, or other symbols plural, add an apostrophe (’) followed by -s.
Examples (not shown on this page, but will follow):
  • A’s (plural of letter A)
  • 7’s (plural of the number seven)
  • !’s (plural of exclamation mark)
Explanation:
The apostrophe helps avoid confusion — for example, “I got all A’s” is clearer than “As”.
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III. Declension of Nouns (continued)
2. Formation of Plurals (continued)
j. (continued) Letters, numbers, and symbols
Explanation:
We add 's to form plurals of letters, numbers, or other symbols to avoid confusion.
Example:
  • “Mind your p’s and q’s.”
  • “He wrote three 7’s in a row.”
k. Some nouns have two plural forms with slightly different meanings
Explanation:
The two forms can reflect different contexts — e.g., "pennies" (counting coins), "pence" (price).
3. Invariable Nouns (same form for singular and plural)
a. Some nouns use the same word for both singular and plural.
Note:
When these words are used with numbers (e.g., two dozen, three hundred), the form stays the same.
But when used alone, we form plurals by adding -s:
e.g. dozens, hundreds, thousands.
b. Some nouns are only used in the plural form
(Sometimes there is a singular form, but the meaning of the plural is different.)
Explanation:
You cannot say “a scissor” in standard English — the item is treated as plural.
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📘 Noun Forms – Special Cases (Advanced Plural Usage)
A. Plural Forms with Special Meanings
Some plural nouns have different meanings from their singular forms.
For example:
  • customs (duties/taxes) → see also: custom (habit or tradition)
We paid customs at the airport.
  • manners (politeness) → see also: manner (a way of doing something)
He has good manners.
  • premises (buildings or property) → see also: premise (an idea or statement)
Smoking is not allowed on the premises.
  • quarters (living accommodations) → see also: quarter (one fourth)
The soldiers stayed in the army quarters.
  • spectacles (glasses) → see also: spectacle (a scene or display)
I lost my spectacles again!
  • irons (shackles) → see also: iron (metal or appliance)
The prisoner was bound in irons.
  • forces (military) → see also: force (power/energy)
He joined the armed forces.
  • tins (canned food) → see also: tin (metal)
We bought two tins of soup.
  • woods (forest) → see also: wood (material)
They went walking in the woods.
B. Abstract and Material Nouns That Only Use Singular Form
These nouns are usually uncountable and do not have a plural form.
Examples:
  • beauty, love, hope, charity – abstract ideas
  • timber, gold, rice, tea, water, air – materials or substances
📌 Some can appear in plural form but with a different meaning:
  • light → lights (lamps)
  • practice → practices (habits or routines)
  • iron → irons (shackles)
  • force → forces (military)
  • tin → tins (canned goods)
  • wood → woods (a forested area)
C. Nouns That End in ‘-s’ But Are Treated as Singular
These look like plurals but take singular verbs:
  • politics – Politics is complicated.
  • news – The news was shocking.
  • mathematics, mechanics, physics – Physics is my favourite subject.
D. Collective Nouns That Are Singular in Form But Plural in Meaning
These words refer to groups and usually take plural verbs:
  • poultry – The poultry are clucking loudly.
  • cattle – The cattle are grazing.
  • people – People are waiting outside.
📌 "People" is the plural of "person" and never ends in -s.
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📘 Gender of Nouns
1. Kinds of Gender
a. Masculine Gender
Masculine nouns refer to male people or animals.
Examples:
  • boy
  • father
  • lion
  • cock (male chicken)
🧠 Tip: Masculine gender is used when the noun clearly refers to a male.
b. Feminine Gender
Feminine nouns refer to female people or animals.
Examples:
  • girl
  • mother
  • lioness
  • hen (female chicken)
🧠 Tip: Feminine gender is used when the noun clearly refers to a female.
c. Common Gender
Common gender nouns can refer to either a male or a female.
Examples:
  • parent
  • child
  • cousin
  • friend
  • person
  • student
  • neighbour
  • enemy
  • fish
  • bird
🧠 Tip: These words don’t show gender by themselves. You need more context to know.
d. Neuter Gender
Neuter gender refers to things without life – neither male nor female.
Examples:
  • book
  • room
  • tree
  • fire
🧠 Tip: Objects, places, and most abstract ideas are neuter.
Notes:
  1. Young children or animals are sometimes treated as neuter and may be referred to using it.
  • e.g. The baby is sleeping. It looks peaceful.
  1. Collective nouns are often treated as neuter.
  • e.g. The fleet is moving slowly.
  • e.g. The family is large.
  1. Abstract or material things are usually neuter in grammar, though sometimes we may use gendered language metaphorically.
Page 13
🌞 Gender in Personification and Formation of Feminine Gender
1. Gender in Personification
Sometimes, in literature or speech, non-living things are treated as if they are alive. This is called personification. When we personify something, we may give it a masculine or feminine gender.
Masculine Personification
If the thing is powerful, strong, or fierce, we use he or him.
Examples:
  • the sun
  • summer
  • winter
  • time
  • death
🧠 Tip: These are often seen as bold or dominant in nature.
Feminine Personification
If the thing is gentle, beautiful, or elegant, we use she or her.
Examples:
  • the moon
  • spring
  • autumn
  • the earth
  • hope
  • peace
  • liberty
  • justice
  • ship
🧠 Tip: This is common in poetry or classic literature (e.g. “She sailed across the seas.”)
2. Formation of Feminine Gender
a. Using a Different Word Entirely
Some masculine nouns have a completely different word for the feminine form.
🧠 Tip: These are vocabulary pairs that must be memorised.
b. Adding “-ess” to the Masculine Noun
Many feminine nouns are formed by adding -ess to the masculine noun.
Examples:
  • author → authoress
  • host → hostess
🧠 Tip: This rule is more common in older forms of English. Today, many people use gender-neutral terms like "actor" for both men and women.
Page 14
🌸 Advanced Feminine Noun Formation & Noun Cases
2. Formation of Feminine Gender (continued)
b. Changing the Ending of a Masculine Noun
Some masculine nouns form their feminine counterparts by changing the ending of the word.
🧠 Tip: Most modern usage avoids unnecessary gendered endings (e.g. “actor” for both genders).
c. Adding a Word Before or After
Some nouns form the feminine version by adding a word that indicates gender.
🧠 These are compound nouns where the gender is shown by part of the word.
C. Case of Nouns
What is a "Case"?
The case of a noun refers to how it relates to other words in a sentence. This shows the noun's grammatical function, such as whether it is the subject, object, or shows possession.
1. Nominative Case
The nominative case is used when the noun is the subject of the verb. In other words, it's the "doer" of the action.
Example:
  • The cat chased the mouse.
  • (Here, the cat is in the nominative case.)
🧠 You can find the nominative case by asking: “Who is doing the action?”
Page 14
📘 Nominative Case – Uses of Nouns
a. Subject of a Verb
A noun can be the subject of a verb – the person or thing doing the action. When a noun is used this way, it is in the nominative case.
Examples:
  • John threw a stone.
    (John is the subject doing the action “threw.”)
  • The baby sleeps well.
    (The baby is the subject doing the action “sleeps.”)
🧠 To find the subject: Ask "Who is doing the verb?"
b. Direct Address
When a noun is used to speak directly to someone, it is called direct address, also known as the vocative case.
Examples:
  • Come on, boys.
  • Friends, listen to me.
(Boys and Friends are being spoken to directly.)
🧠 These nouns are not doing anything – they are being addressed directly by the speaker.
c. Appositive (in apposition to subject)
A noun that comes after another noun to explain or rename it is called an appositive. If it refers to the subject, it is also in the nominative case.
Examples:
  • Our instructor, Mr. Wong, was absent yesterday.
    (Mr. Wong explains instructor – they refer to the same person.)
  • Tom, the piper’s son, stole pigs.
    (The piper’s son renames Tom.)
🧠 Appositives give more information and follow the noun they explain.
d. Subjective Complement
A subjective complement is a noun that renames the subject and follows a linking verb (such as is, was, will be).
Examples:
  • My brother is a doctor.
    (Doctor renames brother, after the linking verb is.)
  • That girl will be our leader.
    (Leader renames girl, after the linking verb will be.)
🧠 The structure is: Subject + Linking Verb + Subjective Complement
Page 16
📘 Subjective Complement & Possessive Case
🔹 Subjective Complement (continued)
Sometimes a noun comes after verbs like be, have been, had been, become, seem, look, etc. These verbs act like linking verbs, and the noun after them is used to describe or rename the subject. This noun is called a subjective complement and is also in the nominative case.
Examples:
  • The Bible is a little-known book.
    (Book renames or explains Bible.)
  • We remain enemies.
    (Enemies explains We – we are still enemies.)
🧠 These complements follow linking verbs and tell us more about the subject.
🔹 2. Possessive Case (also called Genitive Case)
The possessive case shows that one noun owns or is closely related to another. This can show:
  • Possession (who owns something)
  • Origin (where something comes from)
  • Authorship (who created something)
  • Similar relationships
We form the possessive by adding:
  • 's (apostrophe s)
  • or just an apostrophe (') in some cases
Examples:
  • This is John’s umbrella.
    (The umbrella belongs to John.)
  • Mother’s son
    (The son comes from the mother – origin.)
  • Shakespeare’s plays
    (The plays were written by Shakespeare – authorship.)
🛠️ Rules for Forming Possessive Nouns
a. For singular nouns, just add 's.
Example:
  • the boy’s book
    (The book belongs to the boy.)
🧠 Even if the noun ends in “s”, you still usually add ’s for singular nouns in British English.
Page 17
📘 Possessive Case – Continued (Page 18)
🔹 a. Exceptions: Only Add Apostrophe (’)
For some proper nouns ending in s, we only add an apostrophe (’) without another “s”. This avoids awkward pronunciation (two sibilant sounds together).
Examples:
  • for conscience’ sake
    (For the sake of conscience)
  • for Jesus’ sake
    (For the sake of Jesus)
🧠 Avoid adding ’s if the name already ends in an “s” sound.
🔹 b. Plural Nouns Ending in “s”
If a plural noun already ends in “s”, we only add an apostrophe (’).
Examples:
  • girls’ school
    (School of the girls)
  • horses’ tails
    (Tails of the horses)
🔹 c. Plural Nouns Not Ending in “s”
If a plural noun does not end in “s”, add ’s.
Examples:
  • men’s club
    (Club for men)
  • Children’s toys
    (Toys belonging to the children)
🔹 d. Compound Nouns
For nouns made up of more than one word, add ’s to the final word.
Example:
  • the Y.M.C.A.’s program
    (The programme of the YMCA)
🔹 e. Joint Ownership (Shared Possession)
If two nouns are joined with “and” and they share ownership, add ’s to the second noun only.
Example:
  • John and Jean’s property
    (John and Jean share one property)
🔹 f. Separate Ownership
If two nouns joined with “and” refer to things they own separately, add ’s to both nouns.
Example:
  • John’s and Jean’s books
    (John has his books, and Jean has hers)
🧠 The apostrophe shows whether the nouns share or separately own something.
Page 18
📘 Possessive Case – Continued (Page 19)
🔹 g. Do NOT Use ’s with Inanimate Objects
For non-living things, do not use ’s.
Instead, use “of” + noun structure.
Examples:
  • the leg of the table
    ✅ Correct
    ❌ NOT: the table’s leg
  • the cover of the book
    ✅ Correct
    ❌ NOT: the book’s cover
🧠 Use "of" with things that do not have life.
🔹 h. Use ’s with Personified or Animated Objects
If an object or concept is personified, ’s can be used.
Examples:
  • Nature’s laws
    (Laws of nature, nature is personified)
  • at death’s door
    (An idiom meaning "close to death")
🧠 If an object is imagined as human-like, use ’s.
🔹 i. Use ’s with Expressions of Time, Distance, or Measurement
We often use ’s to show time, space, or quantity.
Examples:
  • a week’s holiday
    (A holiday that lasts a week)
  • a foot’s length
    (A length of one foot)
  • a pound’s weight
    (A weight of one pound)
🧠 The noun shows the measure or duration.
🔹 j. Use ’s in Common Phrases and Idioms
Some fixed expressions in English also use ’s.
Examples:
  • at his finger’s ends
    (To know something thoroughly)
  • for mercy’s sake
    (An emotional plea for kindness)
  • to his heart’s content
    (Until he is fully satisfied)
🧠 These are idiomatic – memorise them as fixed phrases.
🔹 k. Abbreviated Possessives in Place Names
In some place names, the possessed item is implied and left out.
Example:
  • at St. Paul’s (Cathedral)
    (The word "Cathedral" is omitted but understood)
🧠 Common in place names: e.g., St Mary’s, King’s Cross.
Page 19
📘 Possessive Case – Final Notes (Page 20)
🔹 More Examples of Possessive Abbreviation
Examples:
  • at St. George’s (School)
    (At St George’s School)
  • Tonight I dine at my uncle’s (house)
    (I’m eating at my uncle’s house)
  • You can get this at Wong Brother’s (shop)
    (Buy it from Wong Brother’s shop)
❗Important Notes About the Possessive ’s
  1. Only change the form of a noun when it takes the possessive ’s. Don’t change the rest of the sentence.
  1. Possessive nouns often act like adjectives (they describe other nouns).
  1. When using a pronoun, the noun that follows is an object, not a possession.
  • e.g. Her brother (brother is the object, not something she owns)
  1. If you're unsure whether to use ’s or “of”, use “of”. Example:
  • The enemy’s defeat
    (enemy defeated)
  • The defeat of the enemy
    (same meaning, slightly more formal)
But be careful:
  • a father’s love
    (Could mean the love a father gives)
  • the love of a father
    (Could mean the love given by OR felt for a father — more ambiguous)
🎯 Objective Case (Accusative Case)
What is the Objective Case?
It is when a noun is the receiver of an action — in other words, the thing being acted upon. This is called being in the object position.
🔹 a. Direct and Indirect Objects
  • A Direct Object is the person or thing directly receiving the action.
  • An Indirect Object is the person or thing receiving the benefit or result.
Examples:
John gave Mary a book.
  • Mary is the indirect object (who receives the book)
  • Book is the direct object (what was given)
🧠 Teaching Tip:
Try writing your own examples with verbs like "give," "send," "tell," "bring," or "make" — they usually have both direct and indirect objects.
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